Jeffrey Salazar
Dairy calves have different nutritional requirements depending on their breed and age. For example, calves under three weeks old require milk proteins such as whey protein isolate, delactosed whey, dried skim milk, and casein. Large breed calves should receive four quarts of undiluted colostrum within an hour of birth, while small breed calves should receive three quarts. Dairy calves require vitamins such as vitamin K and the water-soluble B vitamins, which can be found in colostrum, fermented colostrum, whole milk, and good milk replacers. As calves grow, their diet should change to reflect their developing nutritional needs. For example, after calving, dairy cows require a diet high in carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and water to produce milk.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Diet for newborn calves | Colostrum with high antibody levels and low bacteria counts, along with adequate levels of high-quality protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals. |
| Colostrum quantity | Large breed calves: 4 quarts of undiluted colostrum within one hour of birth, or 2 quarts within an hour and an additional 2 quarts within 6 to 8 hours. Small breed calves: 3 quarts within the first hour. |
| Liquid diet | Milk or reconstituted milk replacer, with slightly more than 4 litres of milk per day for calves weighing 40-50 kg at birth, divided between 2 feedings per day. |
| Solid feed | Introduced early, within 3 days of age. Stimulates rumen development and helps wean calves at a younger age (4-8 weeks). |
| Fat concentration | 10%-30%, ideally ≥15% in cold climates. |
| Protein sources | Milk proteins such as whey protein isolate, delactosed whey, dried skim milk, and casein. Animal proteins like plasma proteins. Plant proteins like soy protein isolate and soy protein concentrate. |
| Carbohydrates | Fermentable carbohydrates like grain supplementation in starter feed stimulate rumen development and butyrate production. |
| High energy diet | Increased mammary gland fat deposition during the prepubertal phase (<9 months). |
| Large breed heifers | Require a high forage diet to meet nutrient requirements. |
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What You'll Learn
Colostrum and antibody levels
Colostrum is the single most important factor in determining the health and survival of calves. It is critical for the passive transfer of immunity. Calves must be fed colostrum with high antibody levels to ensure they are protected from disease organisms until their immune systems are functional. The major antibody transferred in colostrum is IgG, which accounts for roughly 85% of the total volume. Other antibodies found in colostrum include IgA and IgM.
To ensure adequate passive transfer of antibodies, calves should receive at least 3 litres of high-quality colostrum (IgG concentration >50 mg/mL) within 6 hours of birth, with a second feeding between 8 and 12 hours after birth. Large breed calves should receive 4 quarts of colostrum within 1 hour of birth, while small breed calves can be fed 3 quarts within the first hour. The initial feeding of colostrum is critical, and colostrum feedings should continue until calves are 3 days old.
The quality of colostrum can be affected by various factors, including the length of the dry period before calving, the age of the cow, and breed. A dry period of 3 to 4 weeks is needed to allow antibodies to concentrate in the colostrum. Older cows generally produce colostrum with higher antibody levels than younger cows. Breed also plays a role, with Jerseys having the highest antibody levels and Holsteins the lowest.
The volume and timing of colostrum feedings are also important. Calves should receive an adequate volume of colostrum, typically around 4 quarts, within 1 to 2 hours of birth and no later than 6 hours after birth. Pasteurization of colostrum can help reduce bacterial contamination and improve IgG absorption. Proper udder preparation, collection of colostrum in a clean container, and prompt refrigeration can also minimize bacterial contamination.
Assessing antibody levels in calves after they consume colostrum is important to ensure successful passive transfer of immunity. A blood sample can be taken between 1 and 7 days after birth to measure antibody concentration. A simple measurement of serum protein levels can also be used as a good substitute for IgG levels, with a minimum level of 5.2 g/dL indicating sufficient colostrum intake.
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Liquid diets for young calves
A liquid diet is essential for newborn calves, as it provides the principal nutrients for their development. This diet typically consists of whole milk or milk replacers, with waste milk being another option. Whole milk is a high-quality choice, but it can be costly due to its nutrient fluctuations. On the other hand, milk replacers can be more consistent and economical, but they may pose challenges to the intestinal health of young calves.
The liquid diet composition can significantly impact the calf's performance and the incidence of diarrhea, a common issue that causes economic losses for dairy farmers. Acidifying the liquid diet is a strategy to address this problem by inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms and improving intestinal bacterial composition.
For calves under three weeks of age, milk protein sources are preferred in milk replacers. These include whey protein isolate, delactosed whey, dried skim milk, and casein. While plant proteins like soy protein isolate and concentrate can be used, they are generally less desirable than animal proteins.
The fat concentration in milk replacers is typically between 10% and 30%, with most falling in the range of 15% to 20%. In cold climates, a fat concentration of at least 15% is recommended to meet the higher energy requirements of calves.
The daily intake of protein and energy are critical factors influencing calf growth. Liquid feeds and starter grains provide these essential nutrients, and their intake and composition impact the growth potential. To achieve optimal growth, the diet must provide sufficient energy for growth and enough protein for body tissue development.
The liquid diet fed to calves also affects the development of their rumen. Calves fed exclusively on milk or milk replacers for an extended period may have a relatively small rumen compared to the abomasum. Therefore, it is important to introduce solid feed early, usually within the first three days of life, to stimulate rumen development.
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Solid feed and rumen development
Dairy calves require specific nutrients for growth and milk production, including carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and water. The nutritional needs of calves vary depending on their breed and age. Solid feed should be introduced early, within the first three days of a calf's life, to stimulate rumen development. The rumen, or stomach compartment, of young calves is not yet fully developed, and they have a limited capacity to digest vegetable proteins.
The traditional nutritional strategy for dairy calves involves feeding a limited quantity of liquid feed, such as milk or milk replacers, to stimulate solid feed consumption and early rumen development. This approach allows calves to be weaned at a younger age, typically between 4 and 8 weeks. The amount of liquid feed remains constant as the calf grows, while increases in growth rate are achieved through higher solid feed consumption. Solid feeds, also known as calf starter feeds, are typically made from soybean, canola, cottonseed, sunflower seed, linseed, or corn gluten meals, with soybean being the most common.
The physical form of the solid feed is important for the health and efficiency of weight gain in calves. The particle size of the feed should be adequate, as very fine particles can lead to abnormal rumen development. The production of volatile fatty acids through microbial fermentation in the rumen is essential for stimulating rumen papillae development, with butyrate being the most critical inducer. Additionally, starch sources in the diet are necessary for rumen development and to ease the stress of weaning.
The protein content of solid feeds is crucial and should be determined based on the protein supply from milk or milk replacers. For large breed calves, the recommended crude protein percentage ranges from 18 to 24%, depending on their liquid feed intake and daily growth goals. It is important to distinguish between dietary crude protein (CP) and metabolizable protein (MP). Dietary CP refers to the total nitrogen content in the feed, while MP represents the amount of protein that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The conversion factor of CP to MP varies depending on the maturity of the calf's rumen, with younger calves having lower conversion efficiencies.
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Protein sources and requirements
Protein is a critical component of a dairy calf's diet, especially during the first few weeks of life when the calf's digestive system is rapidly developing. The protein source can significantly impact the quality of the calf's diet and its overall health and growth.
Preferred protein sources for dairy calves, especially those under three weeks old, are those derived from milk proteins. These sources include whey protein isolate, delactosed whey, dried skim milk, and casein. The quality of these protein sources can be influenced by processing methods. Other animal proteins, such as plasma proteins, can also be good alternatives.
Plant protein sources are generally less desirable for very young calves, but appropriately processed plant proteins may be acceptable. These can include soy protein isolate and soy protein concentrate, which can be processed to reduce antigenicity and remove antinutritional factors. Soybean meal is the most common plant protein source used in calf starters. Other plant protein sources include canola, cottonseed, sunflower seed, linseed, and corn gluten meals.
The required protein content in a dairy calf's diet may vary depending on factors such as breed size and the ratio of milk replacer to starter intake. For large breed calves, the recommended crude protein percentage ranges from 18% to 24%. The addition of urea, biuret, or ammonium propionate to increase the protein content of the diet has been shown to result in greater gains in body weight.
It is important to note the difference between dietary crude protein (CP) and metabolizable protein (MP). Milk replacers using non-milk protein sources may have lower conversion efficiencies, and additional supplements such as lysine, methionine, and threonine may be needed.
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Fat concentration and energy levels
Fat concentration is an important consideration when feeding dairy calves, as it substantially influences the energy concentration of milk replacers. Typically, fat concentrations in milk replacers range from 10% to 30%, with most falling between 15% and 20%. In cold climates, where high energy consumption is crucial for the wellbeing of young calves, fat concentrations should be 15% or higher. Fat sources typically include coconut oil, tallow, choice white grease, and lard. Additionally, emulsifying agents such as lecithin and monoglycerides are often added.
It is important to note that while higher fat concentrations provide the necessary energy for calves in cold climates, they can also lead to a reduction in the rate of starter consumption. This is because as the fat concentration in the replacer increases, the calf's intake of other nutrients decreases. Therefore, in addition to ensuring adequate fat and energy intake, it is crucial to provide a balanced diet that includes other essential nutrients for the calf's growth and development.
The energy requirements of dairy calves are also influenced by their breed and size. Large breed calves, such as Holsteins, tend to have higher energy requirements compared to smaller breeds. Additionally, the energy needs of calves change as they grow. During the pre-weaning phase, calves experience rapid growth and require sufficient energy to support this development. After weaning, the energy requirements may change, and precision feeding can be implemented to provide the exact amount of energy needed for their growth.
The energy requirements of dairy calves can be met through various feed sources. Liquid feeds, such as whole milk or milk replacers, are initially provided to calves and are an important source of energy. As calves grow, the amount of liquid feed remains constant, and their energy needs are further met by increasing their consumption of solid feeds, also known as calf starters. These solid feeds typically include grain supplementation, which provides rapidly fermentable carbohydrates that stimulate rumen development and enhance energy absorption.
Furthermore, the energy requirements of dairy calves are not solely dependent on fat concentration in the diet. The energy content of the feed is influenced by various factors, including the presence of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. For example, starch sources are essential for rumen development and should be included in the diet to ensure adequate energy intake. Additionally, the type of protein source can impact energy retention in calves, with milk-based proteins contributing to body protein deposition and higher levels of dietary fat potentially increasing body fat deposition.
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Frequently asked questions
Newborn calves should be fed highly digestible food with adequate levels of high-quality protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals. They require vitamins A, D, E, K, and the water-soluble B vitamins. They should also receive at least 3 litres of high-quality colostrum within 6 hours of birth.
The protein content of calf starter feed should be determined in accordance with protein supply from milk or milk replacer. For large breed calves, the recommended crude protein percentage ranges from 18 to 24%.
The protein source in milk replacers is important, especially for calves under 3 weeks old. Preferred protein sources include whey protein isolate, delactosed whey, dried skim milk, and casein. It is also important to note the difference between dietary crude protein (CP) and metabolizable protein (MP).
