Brenda Khan
The Roman diet was diverse and ever-changing, influenced by geography, trade, social class, and historical developments. The cuisine of ancient Rome evolved as the empire expanded, absorbing culinary influences from conquered territories and exposing Romans to new foods, cooking methods, and provincial habits. The Roman diet primarily consisted of cereals, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products, with meat and fish being more common among the wealthy.
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What You'll Learn
Meat and fish
Meat was scarce and mostly consumed by the rich. In the early days of Rome, the cena, or main meal, consisted of a kind of porridge called puls, which was made from emmer, water, salt and fat. The wealthy ate their puls with eggs, cheese, and honey, and it was sometimes served with meat or fish. The cena eventually developed into a three-course meal: an appetiser (gustatio), main course (primae mensae), and dessert (secundae mensae).
Beef butchery was prohibited until the 2nd century BC as cows were needed in the fields. The ancient Romans mainly ate pork, which was usually first stewed and then roasted. They also ate lamb, veal, and dormice, the latter of which was considered a delicacy. Meat was also obtained from working animals, though this was tough and unappetizing.
Fish was more common than meat. The Romans ate shellfish, morays, sea urchins, and molluscs. Fish was also used to make garum, a spicy sauce made with fish entrails and fermented in direct sunlight. Garum was used as a seasoning, table condiment, and sauce. It was common for those living near the coast to eat fish. The Romans also ate salted fish, and there is evidence of a dish that consisted of cured fish, cooked salt pork or bacon, honey wine, and onions.
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Bread and grains
Grains formed a significant part of the Roman diet, with wheat being the most common grain consumed. Wheat was given out as monthly rations to Roman citizens, in the form of unmilled wheat or bread. The quality of the bread depended on social class, with the wealthy enjoying fine white loaves, while the poor often ate coarser, darker bread made with spelt, corn, or emmer. Bread was also consumed in the form of porridge, especially by the poor, who lacked access to ovens for baking bread. Barley was another important grain for the Romans, though it was considered suitable only for animal feed unless one was decimated. Oats were also consumed but mostly fed to animals.
The Roman diet included a variety of bread-based dishes. For instance, the ordinary Roman's day started with ientaculum, or breakfast, which consisted of bread, cheese, and fruit. Bread and cheese were also popular for the mid-meal. For the main evening meal, cena, bread was consumed alongside other foods such as birds, olives, and fish. Soldiers in the Roman legions received rations of grain, which were generally issued in their basic form, though they received hardtack when on campaign.
The importance of grains in the Roman diet is reflected in the fact that they were included in rations for soldiers and given out as state dole to citizens. Grains were also an important source of nutrition for the poor, who may have relied more on porridge and professionally baked bread due to limited access to ovens. The variety of grains available to the Romans increased as their empire expanded, with grains from Egypt being one of the culinary influences absorbed by Roman cuisine.
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Fruits and vegetables
The ancient Roman diet was largely based on vegetables, which were cultivated and consumed in a variety of ways. The most common vegetables included celery, garlic, flower bulbs, cabbage, kale, broccoli, lettuce, endive, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, carrots, beets, green peas, chard, field greens, cardoons, olives, and cucumber.
Lettuce, cabbage, and leek were particularly important components of the Roman diet, while asparagus, mushrooms, and artichokes were considered delicacies, affordable only to the wealthy.
The ancient Romans also consumed a variety of fruits, including apples, pears, plums, chestnuts, figs, and grapes. Quince was a popular variety of apple, often used to make jam. Apricots were also common and were sometimes added to stewed pork dishes. Citrus fruits were rarely available, only arriving in the 4th century AD.
The Roman diet was heavily influenced by the region's geography and climate, with certain fruits and vegetables being more prevalent in specific areas. For example, archaeological evidence suggests that the city of Herculaneum, destroyed by Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, had access to imported figs, chickpeas, and bowls of fruit.
In addition to fresh produce, the Romans also incorporated dried and preserved fruits and vegetables into their diet. For example, raisins were used in various dishes, and vegetables like peas could be dried and stored for later use.
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Dairy products
The Romans also consumed other dairy products such as butter and milk, although to a lesser extent than cheese. Butter was more commonly consumed in northern Europe, where it was better preserved due to the cooler climate. Germanic people were known for their butter consumption and were said to have perfected salted butter. The Celts, who settled in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, also became known for their butter production. While milk was consumed in ancient Rome, it was not as prominent as in other cultures. The Roman writer Tacitus mentions that the ancient Germans kept cattle for milk, cheese, and meat. However, in Roman society, milk was mostly consumed in limited quantities by people living on farms, and it was not a major part of the urban Roman diet.
The presence of cheese in Roman cuisine underscores the importance of interdisciplinary research, combining history, archaeology, and culinary arts to understand Roman society. By examining the production, trade, and consumption of cheese, researchers can gain insights into Roman economics, social structures, and cultural exchange. Cheese played a significant role in shaping the gastronomic identity of the ancient world, and its legacy continues to inspire and delight people today.
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Influence of trade and expansion
The influence of trade and expansion on the Roman diet was significant, with the empire's expansion exposing Romans to many new foods, provincial culinary habits, and cooking methods. The Roman diet evolved over time, influenced by interactions with other cultures and the incorporation of new ingredients and techniques into their cuisine.
Trade played a crucial role in shaping the Roman diet. With their extensive network of roads and sea routes, the Romans could import and export a diverse range of goods, including both practical and luxury items. Italy, for example, was known for its ceramic, marble, and metal industries, and had access to several fine seaports, such as the city of Rome's port at Ostia. The Romans also established trade routes throughout the Mediterranean, allowing them to import and export goods such as wine and olive oil, which were stored and transported in large amphorae.
The expansion of the Roman Empire brought them into contact with new territories and culinary traditions. The conquest of Egypt in the first century BCE, for instance, vastly expanded the empire's grain supply, while the inclusion of Sicily and Sardinia early in Rome's history also contributed to this. The Roman colonies provided a diverse array of foods to Rome itself, including ham from Belgium, oysters from Brittany, garum (a distinctive fish sauce) from Mauretania, wild game from Tunisia, silphium from Cyrenaica, flowers from Egypt, lettuce from Cappadocia, and fish from Pontus.
The Roman diet was also influenced by trade with more distant regions. For example, lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD, though they were not widely cultivated. Additionally, the Romans had access to a limited supply of rice, and their cuisine included vegetables that are no longer present in modern times, such as different-coloured carrots (though not orange ones).
The impact of trade and expansion on the Roman diet was not limited to the introduction of new foods but also influenced the dietary habits of Romans across social classes. Initially, there were not significant dietary differences between social classes, but as the empire expanded, disparities developed. The upper classes, for example, adopted new customs, such as scheduling business obligations in the morning and visiting the baths after the midday meal, while the traditional routines of the lower classes remained closely tied to the daily rhythms of manual labour.
In conclusion, the influence of trade and expansion on the Roman diet was far-reaching. The Romans' interactions with other cultures through trade and conquest exposed them to new foods, ingredients, and culinary traditions, shaping their dietary habits and contributing to the diverse and evolving nature of Roman cuisine.
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Frequently asked questions
The Roman diet was primarily based on cereals, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and dairy products. Meat and fish were consumed but were more common among the wealthy.
The wealthy Romans ate meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, cheese, grains, and legumes. Meat included animals like dormice (an expensive delicacy), hare, snails, and boar. They also indulged in expensive delicacies such as oysters, exotic spices, and imported fruits.
The poor Romans ate bread, cheese, and fruit for breakfast. For their main evening meal, they ate birds, olives, and occasionally pork or roast dormouse, which was a common snack among the poor.
The cuisine of ancient Rome changed greatly over the duration of the civilization's existence. In the beginning, dietary differences between Roman social classes were not great, but disparities developed with the empire's growth. As Rome expanded its empire, it absorbed culinary influences from conquered territories, and new ingredients were introduced through trade routes, making Roman food more diverse over time.
