Leena Watts
The ancient Roman diet is a fascinating topic, with evidence from archaeology and literature revealing a diverse range of foods and eating habits. The cuisine of ancient Rome evolved over time, influenced by trade, expansion, and political changes, and there were notable differences in the diets of the rich and poor. So, what was the average Roman diet like? From bread and vegetables to exotic meats and spiced wine, the typical Roman diet included many items that are now staples of modern Italian cooking, as well as some more unusual dishes.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Bread | Originally made of emmer, a cereal grain closely related to wheat, with a bit of salt. In the Imperial period, wheat bread was introduced and with time, more and more wheaten foods began to replace emmer loaves. |
| Bread types | White bread for the elite, darker bread for the middle class, and the darkest bread for the poor peasants. |
| Meat | Hare, snails, boar, dormice (an expensive delicacy), smaller birds like thrushes, chickens, pheasants, beef, and game meat. |
| Seafood | Clams, oysters, octopus, sea fish, swordfish, dolphin, jellyfish, and octopus. |
| Vegetables | Celery, garlic, some flower bulbs, cabbage, kale, broccoli, lettuce, endive, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, carrots, beets, green peas, chard, field greens, cardoons, olives, and cucumber. |
| Fruits | Figs, pears, apples, berries, and grapes. |
| Nuts | Walnuts, almonds, pistachios, chestnuts, hazelnuts, pine nuts, and sesame seeds. |
| Dairy | Cheese and milk. |
| Desserts | Spira, a type of sweet pastry made with a thin, cake-like crust sometimes containing fruit. |
| Drinks | Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (posca), spiced wine, beer (cerevisia), and garum, liquamen, and allec, the fermented fish sauces. |
| Food for the poor | Porridge made of barley, emmer, or millet, livened up with fruit, vegetables, or meat. |
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What You'll Learn
Roman soldiers' rations
The typical Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. Pliny the Elder, for example, discussed over 30 varieties of olive, 40 kinds of pear, and a wide variety of vegetables. Meat was also a common part of the Roman diet and included animals like hare, snails, and boar.
Roman soldiers, in particular, required a high-calorie diet to endure their intensive training and combat. Their rations included:
- Cereal grains, which provided quick energy and stamina. Wheat was consumed in bread, soups, stews, and pasta. The average Roman legionary or auxiliary ate about a third of a ton of grain annually.
- Meat, including a daily allotment of a pound of bacon. This ration could be supplemented by whatever livestock was nearby and available, such as cattle, swine, sheep, or deer.
- Cheese, which was a central part of the Roman diet and provided fat for disease resistance and longevity. Soldiers often made their own cheese from the milk of their livestock or impounded cows, sheep, or goats, depending on the region.
- Salt, which was carried by each legionary to preserve meat and prevent infection and decay.
- Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (called "posca"), which was a staple drink for soldiers and the lower classes.
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Roman dining culture
Dining culture in ancient Rome was heavily influenced by social class, with the wealthy enjoying extravagant dishes that were often costly and difficult to prepare, while the average citizen ate a simpler diet of bread, vegetables, cheese, and occasionally meat. The Roman Empire's expansion exposed them to new foods, provincial culinary habits, and cooking methods, which led to a greater variety of dishes being incorporated into Roman dining culture.
The ancient Romans placed a high value on dining and socialising, with dinner parties being a common form of entertainment. Guests would bring their own spice packets to dinner, containing their particular blend of spices to add to their wine. Wine was a popular beverage, often spiced or mixed with water and herbs (known as posca), and it was believed that wearing wreaths made of laurel and other flowers would help prevent drunkenness. Women were initially prohibited from drinking during the Republican period, but this restriction was relaxed under the Roman Empire.
The type of bread one ate was also indicative of social status, with the elite enjoying white bread, the middle class consuming darker bread, and the poorest members of society eating the darkest bread. Bread was sometimes dipped in wine and eaten with olives, cheese, and grapes. In addition to bread, the Romans consumed various nuts, including walnuts, almonds, pistachios, chestnuts, and hazelnuts, which were used to thicken sauces or added to pastries, tarts, and puddings sweetened with honey.
Meat was a significant part of the Roman diet, although it was generally more accessible to the wealthy. Dormice, hare, snails, boar, and smaller birds like thrushes were common, while beef was less popular. Game was more widely consumed than farmed meat, which was considered a luxury. Meat was typically boiled or fried, as ovens were rare. Seafood was also popular, with clams, oysters, octopus, and most sea fish being common dishes.
The ancient Romans had a diverse palette when it came to fruits and vegetables, consuming a wide variety of produce, including many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. They enjoyed various pears, figs (both native and imported), and vegetables such as celery, garlic, cabbage, lettuce, onions, asparagus, and beets. Some foods that are now associated with Italian cuisine, such as tomatoes, lemons, and pasta, were not part of the ancient Roman diet.
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Roman food for the rich
The ancient Roman diet for the wealthy was varied and diverse, with access to a wide range of foods that were often considered luxurious and exotic. Here is an overview of what Roman food for the rich entailed:
Meat and Seafood:
The rich Romans had a varied meat and seafood diet. They consumed meat from animals like dormice (an expensive delicacy), hare, snails, and boar. Smaller birds like thrushes, chickens, and pheasants were also eaten. Additionally, they had access to a variety of seafood, including a type of clam called telline, oysters, octopus, and most sea fish. Red mullet, a small fish with a creamy texture similar to chicken liver, was also a delicacy among the wealthy, though its price was exorbitant.
Fruits and Vegetables:
The elite Romans consumed a variety of fruits and vegetables, some of which were imported from distant lands. They enjoyed both native and imported figs, as well as pears, apples, cherries, plums, and a wide array of vegetables. These vegetables included celery, garlic, cabbage, lettuce, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, and many others. The Romans also used fruits and vegetables in various recipes, such as mixing honey, vinegar, salt, and water to prepare vegetables, creating a mixture called oxymel.
Dairy and Eggs:
Cheese was an important part of the Roman diet, with Roman authors like Pliny the Elder and Varro writing about its dietary and medicinal uses. The Romans were pioneers in cheesemaking, producing both hard and soft cheeses. Eggs were also consumed by the wealthy, as were various nuts, including walnuts, almonds, pistachios, and hazelnuts.
Bread:
While bread was consumed by all classes, the rich had access to higher-quality, finer breads made from wheat. White bread was typically baked for the elite, while darker bread was consumed by the middle class and the darkest bread by the poor.
Condiments and Sauces:
The Romans had a taste for both sweet and savoury flavours, and they often combined the two. Honey was widely used as a sweetener and preservative, and it was added to many dishes and sauces. They also made use of various nuts to thicken spiced, sweet wine sauces, which were served with roasted meat or fowl. The Romans also had a taste for fermented fish sauces like garum, liquamen, and allec, which were accessible to all classes.
In summary, the Roman diet for the rich was characterised by variety, luxury, and exotic ingredients. They had access to a diverse range of meats, seafood, fruits, vegetables, dairy, eggs, fine breads, and flavourful sauces, showcasing their wealth and status through their culinary choices.
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Roman food for the poor
The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. However, the dietary differences between social classes were significant. While the wealthy enjoyed delicacies like dormice, hare, peacock, and snails, the poor had to make do with more basic fare.
The main food of the poor was a porridge called "puls," made by mixing ground wheat and water. Puls was often livened up with whatever fruits, vegetables, or meats could be afforded. Poor Romans primarily ate vegetables like lentils, cucumbers, onions, garlic, and lettuce, and fruits like apples and figs. They also consumed nuts and sometimes had access to cheese and eggs. Millet was a staple for the poor, and they also ate more oats and barley than the wealthy.
The government provided free or cheap grain for the poor, called "grain dole." This was used by politicians to gain popularity with the lower class. The poor also had access to bread, which was a common staple food in the Roman Empire. The bread for the poor was typically darker and made from grains like emmer (a cereal grain closely related to wheat) or barley. This was in contrast to the white bread baked for the elite.
While meat was less common, it was not unheard of in the poor's diet. In fact, recent research in Pompeii has shown that the poor did eat meat, including giraffe, from restaurants. Fish was also a part of the poor's diet, as it was more common and affordable than other types of meat. Oysters, for example, were widely consumed and even farmed by large businesses.
The main drink for the lower classes was sour wine mixed with water and herbs, called "posca." Beer was also consumed but was considered vulgar and associated with barbarians. For dessert, the poor would have had access to fruits, which were highly valued in ancient Rome, as well as pastries like "spira," made with a thin, cake-like crust and sometimes containing fruit.
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Roman food taboos
The Roman diet changed significantly over the duration of the civilization's existence, with political changes, trade, and expansion exposing Romans to new foods, culinary habits, and cooking methods.
While there is limited information on Roman food taboos, there is evidence to suggest that certain foods were avoided or considered taboo in specific contexts. Here are some insights into Roman food taboos:
- Cattle Consumption: In the Mithraea of the Roman Empire, there is evidence of a possible "ritual taboo" against consuming cattle. While cattle were a popular species in the general diet of the northwestern provinces, they were notably absent from Mithraic temples. This avoidance may be due to the importance of the "cosmic" bull in Mithraic mythology, similar to the taboo on consuming cows in modern Hinduism.
- Beer: Beer (cerevisia) was known to the Romans but was considered vulgar and associated with barbarians. It was not a common drink among the Romans, who preferred wine.
- Spinach and Eggplant: Spinach and eggplant (aubergine) were not part of the traditional Roman diet, as they were introduced later from the Arab world.
- Citrus Fruits: While lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD, they were not widely cultivated, and citrus fruits were generally scarce in the Roman diet.
- Sugar and Butter: The Romans did not have access to refined sugar or properly churned butter, which are common ingredients in modern sweets and desserts.
- Pork: While pork was consumed by the Roman legions and was the main meat ration in certain regions, there may have been taboos around its preparation and consumption in certain cultural or religious contexts.
Overall, the Roman diet was diverse and included many staples of modern Italian cuisine, but it also had its own unique characteristics and taboos.
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Frequently asked questions
The average Roman diet included meat, fish, vegetables, eggs, cheese, grains (also as bread), legumes, fruits, nuts, and wine. Meat included hare, snails, boar, and smaller birds like thrushes, chickens, and pheasants.
The poor and slaves are generally thought to have relied on a staple porridge made from barley or emmer (farro) and livened up with whatever fruit, vegetables, or meats they could afford.
Wealthy Romans ate more exotic meats like flamingo, peacock, and even giraffe. They also enjoyed rare fruits shipped in from distant continents.
Originally, flat, round loaves made of emmer with a bit of salt were eaten. In the Imperial period, wheat bread was introduced, and over time, it replaced emmer loaves. White bread was baked for the elite, with darker bread for the middle class, and the darkest bread for peasants.
Romans commonly drank wine, which they often spiced and mixed with water. Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (called posca) was a staple for soldiers and the lower classes. Beer was known but considered vulgar.
