Milly Gaines
The concept of vegetarianism is ancient, with its earliest records from ancient India, especially among Hindus and Jains. The principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in both religions as early as the 6th century BCE. Later records indicate that small groups within ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece also adopted similar dietary habits. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras of Samos, in the 5th century BCE, is considered the father of ethical vegetarianism. In the Renaissance era and the Age of Enlightenment, various personalities practiced vegetarianism, and the first vegetarian society was started in England in 1847. The term 'vegan' was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson, marking the beginning of veganism.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest records of vegetarianism | Ancient India, among Hindus and Jains |
| Ancient Greek vegetarianism | 6th century BCE, followers of the Orphic mysteries |
| Vegetarianism in ancient Egypt | 3200 BCE |
| Vegetarianism in ancient Greece | 530 BCE, advocated by Pythagoras |
| Vegetarianism in the Roman Empire | 4th–6th centuries CE |
| Vegetarianism in medieval Europe | Some monks banned meat consumption for ascetic reasons |
| Victorian vegetarian movement | Upper-middle class |
| 17th and 18th centuries in Europe | Greater interest in humanitarianism and moral progress |
| 1806 CE | Earliest concepts of veganism |
| 1944 | The Vegan Society was established |
| 1949 | The society's definition of veganism was suggested |
| Present day | Growing international following |
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What You'll Learn
Ancient Indian and Greek origins
Vegetarianism is deeply rooted in India's historical traditions, with the earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice among a significant number of people originating from ancient India, especially among the Hindus and Jains. The ancient Jains, in particular, their apostle Mahavira, preached an extreme form of non-violence, which also involved an elaborate vegetarian code. Jain and Buddhist sources show that the principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in both religions as early as the 6th century BCE, and the Jain concept may be even older. According to Faxian, a Chinese pilgrim to India in the 4th or 5th century CE, the people of India did not kill any living creature, nor did they eat onions or garlic. The only exception was a group called the Chandalas, who were considered wicked and lived apart from others. Faxian also noted that there were no butchers or dealers in intoxicating drinks in the markets, and that only the Chandalas sold flesh meat.
In ancient India, the dietary practices were shaped by the concept of the Guṇa, a central term in Hindu philosophy referring to qualities or attributes. It was believed that the three Guṇas—Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas—manifested in the forms of "vegetarian," "spicy," and "meaty" foods, respectively. Brahmins, the priests of the highest caste, often adhered to vegetarian diets guided by the Sattva philosophy. Philosopher Michael Allen Fox asserts that "Hinduism has the most profound connection with a vegetarian way of life and the strongest claim to fostering and supporting it."
In ancient Greece, the vegetarian diet was called "abstinence from beings with a soul" (Ancient Greek: ἀποχὴ ἐμψύχων). It was always limited to a small number of practitioners belonging to specific philosophical schools or certain religious groups. The earliest references to a vegetarian diet in European/Asian Minor literature occur in Homer's Odyssey (9, 82–104) and Herodotus (4, 177), which mention the Lotophagi (Lotus-eaters), an indigenous people on the North African coast who, according to Herodotus, lived on nothing but the lotus plant. The Orphics, a religious movement that spread in Greece in the 6th century BCE, may have practised vegetarianism. It is unclear whether Pythagoras, the Greek religious teacher, advocated vegetarianism, but later writers presented him as prohibiting meat altogether. Eudoxus of Cnidus, a student of Archytas and Plato, writes that "Pythagoras was distinguished by such purity and so avoided killing and killers that he not only abstained from animal foods, but even kept his distance from cooks and hunters".
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The influence of religion
Vegetarianism is strongly linked with a number of religious traditions worldwide. The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people are from ancient India, especially among the Hindus and Jains. Jain and Buddhist sources show that the principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in both religions as early as the 6th century BCE. In Jainism, vegetarianism is mandatory for everyone. In Hinduism, vegetarianism is promoted by scriptures and religious authorities but is not mandatory. The Vedas, the oldest and most sacred texts of Hinduism, assert that all creatures manifest the same life force and therefore merit equal care and compassion. Brahmins, the priests of the highest caste, often adhered to vegetarian diets guided by the Sattva philosophy.
In Mahayana Buddhism, vegetarianism is promoted but not mandated. In Chinese Buddhism, monks and nuns follow a vegetarian diet free of eggs and onions. In Taoist tradition, monks may be vegetarian, vegan, or pescetarian on a permanent basis, while lay practitioners often eat vegetarian on certain days of the lunar calendar. Taoist vegetarianism is similar to Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism, but its roots reach pre-Buddhist times. Believers historically abstained from animal products and alcohol before practicing Confucian, Taoist, and Chinese folk religion rites. In Chinese folk religions, people often eat vegan on the 1st and 15th of the month and on the eve of Chinese New Year.
In the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), vegetarianism is less commonly viewed as a religious obligation. However, within Judaism, some interpret the laws of kashrut as designed to wean Jews away from meat-eating and toward a vegetarian ideal. In Christianity, Reverend William Cowherd founded the Bible Christian Church, a Christian vegetarian sect, in 1809. Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating meat as a form of temperance. Some Christian vegetarians argue that Jesus himself was a vegetarian, influenced by the Essenes, an ascetic Jewish sect. In Islam, certain Islamic orders are mainly vegetarian, and many Sufis maintain a vegetarian diet. The former Indian president, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, was also famously a vegetarian.
In the ancient world, several philosophers and religious groups promoted vegetarianism. In ancient Greece, small groups within the civilizations in southern Italy and Greece adopted dietary habits similar to vegetarianism. In both instances, the diet was connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals (called ahimsa in India). In the Platonic Academy, the scholarchs (school heads) Xenocrates and (probably) Polemon pleaded for vegetarianism. In the Peripatetic school, Theophrastus, Aristotle's immediate successor, supported it. Some of the prominent Platonists and Neo-Platonists in the age of the Roman Empire lived on a vegetarian diet. These included Apollonius of Tyana, Plotinus, and Porphyry. Porphyry wrote a treatise, "On Abstinence from Eating Animals", the most elaborate ancient pro-vegetarian text known.
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Vegetarianism in the Middle Ages
Vegetarianism has a long and fascinating history, with its roots stretching back to ancient times. While it's challenging to pinpoint an exact timeframe for the emergence of a vegetarian diet, examining historical contexts can provide valuable insights. So, let's take a journey back in time and explore the practices and perceptions of vegetarianism during the Middle Ages.
During the Middle Ages, which spanned from the 5th to the 15th century, vegetarianism was not a prevalent lifestyle choice as it is today. In fact, it was often associated with religious beliefs and philosophical ideals. One of the most prominent proponents of vegetarianism during this period was the Christian sect known as the Manichaeans. They believed in a strict dualism between the spiritual and the physical worlds, and this extended to their dietary practices. Manichaeans followed a vegetarian, and often vegan, diet to avoid harming animals and to maintain ritual purity. However, as the influence of the Manichaeans declined in the later centuries of the Middle Ages, their dietary practices also became less prominent.
Medieval Europe also witnessed the emergence of monastic orders, such as the Benedictines and Cistercians, who embraced a vegetarian or semi-vegetarian diet as part of their ascetic lifestyle. These monastic communities often relied on vegetable gardens and abstained from eating meat, although fish was sometimes allowed. The Rule of St. Benedict, a set of guidelines for monastic life written in the 6th century, emphasized moderation and simplicity in diet, which influenced the vegetarian tendencies within these orders.
Outside of these religious contexts, vegetarianism in the broader society of the Middle Ages was not widely embraced. Meat was a luxury for most people, and diets primarily consisted of grains, vegetables, and whatever protein sources were locally available, such as eggs and dairy. Still, there were notable figures during this time who advocated for vegetarianism or at least a reduced consumption of meat. One such figure was the 12th-century French scholar and monk, St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who argued for a more austere lifestyle that included a vegetarian diet.
The philosophical and ethical underpinnings of vegetarianism also evolved during the Middle Ages. The concept of a "vegetarian ethic" began to take shape, emphasizing the idea of non-violence and compassion for animals. This ethic was influenced by a range of philosophical and religious traditions, including Neoplatonism, Stoicism, and the aforementioned Manichaeism. These beliefs laid the groundwork for a more compassionate view of animals and contributed to the development of a more comprehensive ethical framework for vegetarianism.
In conclusion, while vegetarianism in the Middle Ages was largely associated with specific religious sects and philosophical ideals, it also underwent important developments that would shape its future trajectory. The ethical considerations and dietary practices that emerged during this period contributed to a growing awareness of the value of a meatless diet, paving the way for a more widespread adoption of vegetarianism in the centuries to come.
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The Victorian vegetarian movement
Vegetarianism in Victorian England was influenced by various factors, including moral and ethical concerns, health considerations, and social reform movements. The movement attracted individuals from different social classes and backgrounds, with women playing a particularly prominent role.
The earliest mentions of vegetarianism in ancient times were in Greece and India. In Greece, the concept was associated with the Orphics, a religious movement, and philosophers like Pythagoras, who is considered the father of ethical vegetarianism. In India, vegetarianism was linked to the religions of Hinduism and Jainism, with the principle of nonviolence toward animals being central.
In Victorian England, the Vegetarian Society, founded in September 1847, played a pivotal role in promoting the meat-free lifestyle. The society was established by social reformers, philanthropists, and devout Christians who aimed to discourage people from consuming meat, just as the temperance movement advocated for abstinence from alcohol. The press began reporting on this new movement in the 1840s, often with a tone of mockery or incredulity. However, the movement gradually gained traction, with vegetarian restaurants, tea rooms, social clubs, and even hospitals popping up across Britain's major cities.
High-profile individuals, such as the playwright and Fabian socialist George Bernard Shaw, and Isaac Pitman, further bolstered the movement with their support. Sylvester Graham, a Presbyterian minister in the United States, also preached the benefits of a simple, ascetic, and temperate diet, which included whole wheat bread made with "graham flour."
Women were especially visible in the Victorian vegetarian movement, often serving as the "mascots." They promoted vegetarianism through cooking, entertainment, writing cookbooks, editing journals, and lecturing. Notable female vegetarians of the time included Elizabeth Horsell, Jane Hurlstone, and Frances Power Cobbe, a well-known feminist and activist.
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The birth of veganism
The concept of veganism has been around for over 2,000 years, with the earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice among a significant number of people found in ancient India, especially among Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. The principle of nonviolence toward animals was an established rule in Jainism and Buddhism as early as the 6th century BCE. Lord Parshvanath, the 23rd Jain leader, lived in the 9th century BCE and preached nonviolence as stringently as it was practised in the Jain community during Mahavira's time in the 6th century BCE.
Around the 5th century BCE, the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras promoted benevolence among all species and followed a vegetarian diet. In ancient Greece and southern Italy, small groups also adopted dietary habits similar to vegetarianism. In both instances, the diet was connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals.
In the age of the Roman Empire, some prominent Platonists and Neo-Platonists, such as Apollonius of Tyana, Plotinus, and Porphyry, lived on a vegetarian diet. Porphyry wrote the treatise "On Abstinence from Eating Animals", the most elaborate ancient pro-vegetarian text known.
In the 19th century, vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in Britain and the United States. In 1806, the earliest concepts of veganism began to take shape, with Dr William Lambe and Percy Bysshe Shelley being among the first Europeans to publicly object to eggs and dairy on ethical grounds. In 1813, Shelley published "A Vindication of Natural Diet", advocating abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors. In 1815, Lambe called animal food a "habitual irritation" and argued that milk and flesh-eating are branches of a common system that must be abandoned together. Sylvester Graham's meatless Graham diet became popular as a health remedy in the 1830s in the US, and the first known vegan cookbook, "Kitchen Philosophy for Vegetarians" by Asenath Nicholson, was published in 1849.
In November 1944, Donald Watson, a British woodworker, announced the creation of the term "vegan" to describe people who did not consume dairy or eggs, as he believed the vegan lifestyle protected people from tainted food. The term was suggested by early Vegan Society members Mr. and Mrs. Henderson, who proposed calling the society "Allvega" and its magazine "Allvegan". Watson described the term "vegan" as containing the first three and last two letters of "vegetarian", marking "the beginning and end of vegetarian".
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Frequently asked questions
The recorded history of vegetarianism began in the 6th century BCE in ancient India and the eastern Mediterranean.
Vegetarianism is closely associated with the principle of nonviolence toward animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. Major religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism have recommended a vegetarian way of life since their conception.
The Greek philosopher Pythagoras of Samos, in the 6th century BCE, is considered the father of ethical vegetarianism. He preached the idea of the "kinship of all animals" as one basis for human benevolence toward other creatures.
The term "vegan" was coined by Donald Watson in 1944 when the first vegan society was founded. The word was suggested by early members Mr. George A. Henderson and his wife, Fay K. Henderson. However, the definition of veganism as "the principle of the emancipation of animals from exploitation by man" was not established until 1949 by Leslie J. Cross.
